John Gardner, Grendel Essay Example

John Gardner, Grendel Essay Grendel by John Gardner In the novel Grendel, by John Gardner, the main character Grendel encounters two other characters who greatly influence his view about the world around him. One of which is The Sharper and the other is the dragon. They both influence Grendels views on life in a unique ways especially since he looks at his life as isolation due to his communication. The Dragon, is an interesting and intelligent character who claims to know everything. Hes a huge, red/golden dragon that lives in a cave filled with gold and gems. The dragon sees the world as a meaningless place which wore ff onto Grendel after their encounter. When Grendel arrived at the cave, the dragon was waiting for him and took full advantage of Grendels fear of him. On page 58 the dragon said, Ah Grendel. YouVe come! This shows the dragon was waiting for his arrival. They were talking about the Shaper and such. However, after this encounter with the dragon, Grendel sees the world as a meaningless place. The dragon influenced Grendels overall looks on life by pushing him even more towards isolation. The other character that influences how Grendel views his life of isolation is known s the Sharper. The Sharper represents the power of art and imagination to the people he tells his tails too. His positive attitude and spirits lifted Grendel up and brought hope into his life. The author gave such an important character very little characterization. Grendel is a very unique character that you need to take time to understand his full character. He views his life as isolation because of his relationships with humans and the way he reacts to others. He lacks communication because every time he tries to interact with humans, it ends in frustration and isappointment. We will write a custom essay sample on John Gardner, Grendel specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on John Gardner, Grendel specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on John Gardner, Grendel specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Unfortunately most of the time he finds himself trapped in a state of mind where its a one-way communication or talking to things such as the sky and gets no response. Even his own mother is unable to communicate with him. On page 56, it says She whimpered one sound: Dool-dool! Dool-dool! And the hardest part is that Grendel and humans share a common language however the humans disgust and fear of him overrule all of that. Grendel is Just a character who you truly have to have your eyes and ears open to understand him.

Theology- Church and Sacraments Essay Example

Theology Theology- Church and Sacraments Essay Theology- Church and Sacraments Essay All of which I am about to write in this short synthesis is solely taken from the book entitled, Church and Sacraments by Victoria D. Corral, Ed. D. Et al. No other reference was used in the makings. The 12 chosen apostles of Jesus Christ were the first footsteps taken to the creation of the Church, which was born from the Fathers plan in order to continue the mission He had done and that is to proclaim the Kingdom of God. The early Christian community was the beginning of the Church as each apostle begins the Journey of spreading His Word to all nations. Despite the universal acceptance of the many, it ad not always been as acceptable as it is now, before in Christs time. The division between Jews and Gentile had been in continuous tension since then. After the death and resurrection of Christ, the apostles had received the Holy Spirit which enabled them to receive the knowledge of His Word and began to preach immediately afterwards. The converts grew and not too long after had others been convince to widen their horizons and soon began preaching to Gentiles as well. Peter, a disciple of Jesus began teaching to the Jews, while Paul (Saul), though untimely born, taught to the Gentiles. The spread and development of the Christian community grew yet as I have stated a while back, it was not readily accepted to communicate with the Gentiles as Jews became more tapped with the Gospel. And amongst these, Paul took on the stubbornness of the Jewish Christians by preaching radical liberations to temples and synagogues. To Paul, the encounter he had with Jesus at the Road of Damascus had sent the message that it is time to break the boundaries that separated these two. Paul, who participated in the Council of Jerusalem with other apostles, had defended the Gospel of freedom from the Law and among the iscussed issues was that of Circumcision and keeping the law. The conflict between Paul and the Judaizers, people who believe that he Jewish Law is a must to attain salvation, was resolved when the council had resolved to believe that of Pauls argument. Pauls mission reached as far as the Greco-Roman world with Barnabas as a companion along the Journey. The young Church did not remain at peace when it had first been established. It received much hatred from the Romans who believed that their emperor was Divine and laws were important. As such, the apostle James ecame the first apostle to be martyred during Herod Agrippas persecution of the Church. Christians during this time were blamed for every crime done during then; be it treason, wars, illnesses, and such. Christians did not experience the luxury of life back then having faced death untimely, persecutions, and many devastating events. An example would be the reign of Nero. Nero, who put parts of Rome in fire, blamed the Christians as the cause and caused many to die so he could divert the punishment to him. Peter and Paul had died as well and by then all the apostles had ied by martyrdom, which gave the Churchs image as the Church of the Martyrs. St. Ignatius first coined the term Catholic Church which means the Universal Church. Still, it faces difficulty as people begin to oppose the doctrines of the Church and replaced it with other beliefs. These people were called Heretics or people who commit heresy. Heresy in the East dealt with Arianism which denies Jesus as but only a first divine creature. While the West dealt Donatism which claims that anyone committing a grave sin will never be able to return to grace. During the reign of Emperor Constantine, at a point the Church and State had come to common grounds such that Catholic religion became close to being the national religion, the ranks of popes and bishops were established, and the Arianisms spread was paused due to the establishment of the Council of Nicea. But, not too long afterwards, the-so-called religious purpose had turned political where the Church became subservient to the State and with the change of heart of Constantine to side with Arius after exiling him during the Council of Nicea. The reign of Theodosius became the year where the Catholics had been at its peak as he declared Catholic as the national religion. Despite attempts to regain the lost during the disparities, much of the original doctrines have been shattered. Arianism at some point ended but was again spread due to the coming of the West migrants such as Visigoths. Destroying many Catholic churches and bringing disaster, Roman Empire enters the Dark Ages period. Although, at the time, bishops and popes became more functional in civil authority, it was not of power, but because of the opportunity to impart the religious authority. Afterwards, Catholic Church soon became the Roman Catholic Church. On the other hand, the East maintained traditions and at the Council of Chalcedon, Pope Leo disagreed with the decision to make Constantinople equal to Rome and fought for papal primacy. Written in Pope Leos papacy was the greatest mission taken place that when the empire collapses, the only way to protect all was the conversion of the barbarians. When Christendom was created, it paved the way to the conversion of the barbarians. When Clovis, for example, was baptized, he used the Church in stabilizing moral codes towards his men. Gregory the Great laid the foundation of the medieval Christendom making the pope supreme. But still corruption and abuses remained. Monks also played another role in the Church as they accompany the dissolution of the Empire. The monks who created monasteries allowed intellectual life to continue as the Roman Empire crumble. But it also created a split-level Christianity and this was provided by St. Benedict. He influenced monasticism as a place of religious and economical way where it became a place of learning. He went as far as the West and earned the title Father of the Western Monasticism. After a short while, a new religion came called Islam which had converted many into Moslems. They conquered many Christian based countries such as Jerusalem. The East felt abandoned as the West ignored their plea for help. Charles Martel led the people to victory when he defeated the Moslems and expanded the Church and its defense which was an act inherited by his son Pepin. He earned his legitimacy to the throne from Pope Zachary who was later succeeded by Pope Stephen. It became traditional that the pope crowns a king when Pepin helped Pope Stephen defeat the Lombards which made Pope Stephen to crown Pepin a second time. Pepins second son Charles or Charlemagne was considered the best ruler at the time since he was ble to unify the Western Europe making Europe Christendom, put all disagreements towards Pope Leo Ill away, and united the Church with the State. But it could not be avoided that Charlemagne became concerned with the matters involving both the government of the Catholic body and life in Church. He, in a way, had taken authority over the Church and it was not the kind of alliance the Church had thought it would turn out. By the 800-1517, papacy and imperial authority began to fade. Although in the 10th century, it had revived much of the power and authority had moved to the emperor, both papal and imperial. This happened in the Kingdom of the East Franks led by Otto the Great who was said to have continued Charlemagnes seeking of the crown from the pope. Otto had great use of the Church making bishops his greatest collaborators since bishops were intellectually learned and bore no child which made it easy for him to replace one. He collaborated with the Church by granting it an independence of a Papal State and the no Pope would be consecrated until he had pledged to the emperor. As the years move on, Feudalism was introduced and it was not warmly welcomed by the Church as its negative effect reached until the Church itself and its bishops. When the bishops became feudal lords, it made monasteries and Episcopal Sees wealthy, but it had come from the labor of the helpless people who were subjugated to be part of the feudal system. It created corruption which reached the monasteries, suffering the consequence was their spiritual life. Thus a new monastic foundation was created to counter the abuses. The monastery of Cluny was one of the two monastic reforms that led to the revival of the monastic life. Clunys monks had been given freedom from the interferences of the feudal lords, granting them the ability to spread Benedictine monasticism quiet prayer and ignified performance of liturgy. Bernard of Clairevaux was the second movement of monastic reform. Considered one of the greatest spiritual leaders, became a counselor to the popes and kings. The birth of two mendicant orders happened afterwards. The Franciscans and Dominicans, which inspired the renewal and rejection of abuse in the Church. During Pope Gregory VII (Hildebrand)s rule as pope, he strengthened the Churchs control over itself by giving all power to the pope, making it the supreme head of Christendom. He issued a document called Dictatus Papae(Dictates of the Pope) giving authority to the pope. It also raised the dominance of the code of canon law which made the Church more institutionalized. Many of his reforms included the prohibition of lay investiture, simony, and clerical celibacy. Developing even more, in the rule of Innocent Ill, the Church became more of a papal church and through the Gregorian reform, in hopes of the freedom from secular control; the church became worldly and greedy. Yet despite that, the Popes control over the Church intensified and Christendom experienced its golden age. Through the 13th century under the rule of Pope Urban II, the Church became known s an imperial Church as it waged into war. Knights fighting to recover the Holy Land from the Moslems were called Crusaders. Pope Urban II promised eternal reward to those who Joined and it did not take long for people to be attracted. But despite the main motive of retrieving the Holy Land back, some had Joined for the sake of land and material possessions. Many had died, but according to them, they slaughtered because Deus vult(God wills it). A total of seven Crusades were followed. In the First Crusade called by Pope Urban II, Antioch was retrieved from Moslems, broke through Jerusalem, massacred both Jews and Muslims, retrieved Jerusalem, regained influence of Rome to the East, Crusaders were honored and given indulgence, and exempted from taxes. In the Second Crusade called by Pope Eugene II, due to lack of unity among leaders, the Muslim took hold of all the land the Crusade took, including Jerusalem. In the Third Crusade led by Frederick Barbarossa, who died drowning with his army; Duke of Austria and Philip Augustus, who did not get along with Richard the Lionhearted; and Richard the Lionhearted, who did gain control of some lands, were ll considered as a failed attempt to re-capture Jerusalem as the people became more concerned with the treasures rather the Jerusalem. In the Fourth Crusade and the succeeding Crusades, no attempts of retrieving Jerusalem ever happened again. They ransacked and stole treasures and such destroying churches and caused the Church to split. There was violence and the separation between east and west gotten worst as the Empire weakened and the papacy lost stature. But despite the disadvantages that happened, there were several advantages as well. They opened trade routes, introduced new products like soaps and spices, brought wealth to the West, advance learning on Mathematics and Science, brought philosophical works from Greece, and through all the new discoveries made by the Crusade, it eventually led to the period called Renaissance. But the Crusade was still considered as one of the dark pages of the Dark Ages. Another dark page is the Inquisition started by Innocent Ill. This began due to the desire to eliminate those who are heretics and intending to be both a spiritual leader and a political master, Pope Innocent Ills plan backfires on him as he became the first Pope to apply force in suppressing religious opinion. Back in 1054, during the schism of the East and West, the opposing views of the two sides caused an even greater disparity as they resent each others claims. When Michael Cerularius became patriarch of Constantinople, there was little respect towards the papacy and when the Pope insisted that all living in the West must bow to western rituals, so did the Easts insist on their side. Refusing to acknowledge that preaching could be preached in other languages, Rome and Constantinople ended the connection and separated from each other. Both leaders on the Orthodox Church (East) and Roman Church (West) excommunicated one nother. And with the Fourth Crusade happening at the time, who ransacked Constantinople, only disintegrated the relationship of both Churches and until now remains divided. Now the once spiritual beginning of the Church has become political and divided. In the Avignon Papacy, seven popes established their residence at Avignon, France being precedent by Clement V. His desire for peace between France and England made him establish a new residence but failed. The Avignon papacy weakened the papal authority and eventually leads to the Great Western Schism. Due to the Avignon papacys seventy year absence from Rome, it caused the Great Western Schism which had two popes at the same time, namely Urban VI, who was chosen by the citizens of Rome and Clement VI, who was elected by French cardinals in Avignon as anti-pope as a question to Urban VIs legality. During this time, the division between papal authorities grew and dividing the nations to whom they take orders from as well. Confusion and the need for political control grew in parallel to it. Creating a solution to the crisis, the Concilarism was brought forth. A council took place at Piza where the bishops decided to depose both Popes and lected Alexander V who was succeeded by John XXIII, but both Popes refused making the schism last for 40 years. By the end of the schism, the Council of Constance deposed two claimnants, John XXIII and Gregory XII for the sake of harmony in the Church and thus electing a new Pope, Martin V. Although the papacy triumphs in the concilarism, they did not succeed in reestablishing spiritual leadership over Christendom. Martin V succeeds much in terms or political restoration, but failed to restore the Church and due to this failed attempt, the Protestant Reformation came about. During the 14th to the 16th century, the Renaissance movement had greatly affected the Church as well. Popes became preoccupied with luxury and war, monasteries became consumed with wealth and corruption, learning of Theology as a study of the Scriptures in daily life became nothing more than lifeless teachings. Some tried to recover the essence of the Scriptures like John Huss and Savonarola, but died in flames as heretics. This was also the time where several people became influential in canonizing Christian faith. St. Vincent Ferrer, who spread and brought countless people to repentance; St. Bernandine of Siena, condemning the abuses; and St. Catherine of Siena, who convinced Pope Gregory Xl to return and restore papacy of Rome. At the time the Renaissance began, as I have stated in the last paragraph, it was a time of political improvement but a radical decrease in spiritual growth. The Church fell into corruption, politics, unworthy cardinals, failure to call for a reform council, and such. Popes such as Alexander Xl and Sixtus, failed to uphold the standards of the Church by appointing cardinal seats to family members causing a great imbalance to religious functions. Pope Pius II who wanted the reform trying to limit the involvement of the Pope in political matters, died before issuing it. Several reforms were made by the people who remained in faith with God and despite those in the higher positions failing to be models of Christian faith, simple priests and monks continued to show love and care towards the people. A reform later on called Protestant Reformation became another stone to the Church we see now. At the year 1517-1900, Martin Luther cries out a reform publishing his famous Ninety-Five Theses. At the very beginning, Luther was a monk of the Order of St. Augustine, who kept monastery rules and spent much time studying the Bible where he came to realized that it is by grace through faith that everyone is saved and not by good works. During his time, the selling of indulgence was at its peak and many believed that as they pay their indulgence, their sins are cleanse but Luther knew better. Luther knew how corrupted the Church had become and how money or good works will not save a person. He also knew how people relayed on the external ways man could come up of easy salvation and thus, he passed his writing, Ninety-five Theses, to the Church. Unknown to him, his writings had been translated and sent out to numerous people and many had negative reactions towards it, yet Luther had no intentions of making rebellions act but only share and discuss. A priest complained about him in Rome and a hearing was made whether Luther was a heretic and that he rewrite his writings, but he refuses and continued writing. In December 1520, a papal document stating that if he continues his acts, Luther would be excommunicated arrived to him. Along with others who had the same belief as he, burned the document and on January, he was excommunicated. Luther in the ollowing years was unable to control the movement but despite that, it was evident that in every movement, Luthers cry was in it. Another movement was under Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin, which gave birth to Churches now called Reformed and Presbyterian. But the tensions between the two opposing groups cause the thirty years war which was the b test war in Europe. Although there were some g in the Reformation, it was not to Luther, whose intentions were purely religious which escalated into bloodshed and political conflict. Not only that but it had divided the one church into many and hostile churches as well. When the time came where the Catholic Church finally decided to address Luthers questions, the split between the two groups were far too wide already to which still remains today. As a counter- reformation by the Catholic Church was put up, Pope Paul Ill summoned the Council of Trent and made several meetings, some of which were unfruitful, and others of which made progress. The council, after much discussion, answers Luthers question by making the model of the Church as a hierarchical society. The council also reaffirmed the doctrine as salvation that comes from grace, but required good works contradicting Luthers and the Bible), tradition of the Church is source of authority with the Bible, Pope as supreme head of the Church, seven sacraments chosen by Christ, Christ is present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist, saints are intermediaries, and Mary is mother of God and the Church. To assure that all is as followed, Pope Paul Ill instituted the Congregation of the Holy Office or the Inquisition. The Jesuits played an important role as well. Pledging absolute obedience to the Pope, the Jesuits who were intellectually learned made it inevitable that they would be at the forefront of the Catholic resistance to the Reformation. The Council of Trent became an evident fact of the difference between Catholic teaching and Luthers teaching. The council ended when Pope Pius IV approved all their decrees. After all these events, the Catholic Church returned into a Papal Church, Catholic missionaries went back to spreading their religion, Catholic religion grew, but remained as a European Church and Popes became less concerned with civil and political issues. In 1700s, a new philosophy came about called the Age of Reason or Age of Rationalism. The Age of Enlightenment was an intellectual movement where reason is the primary source of legitimacy for authority. It was ushered by Francis Bacon and Rene Descrates. Several philosophers like Spinoza and Emmanuel Kant stated the reason alone can help mankind arrive to truth which is why the motto of the Enlightenment period was Take courage to use your brain. During the Enlightenment period, people began to think that if every man can reason out, why must they be dictated what to do? Thus, people came to the point where freedom to decide for themselves, opened up. A movement called Freemansory took place, wherein they believed in doing good works based on human motives making people began to oppose the Church. To begin with, the philosophers were not technically anti-Christians, simply questioned the narrow-minded thinking of the belief. Some scholars took the time to re-evaluate themselves as well in their understanding of the Bible which led them to a conclusion that some things in the Bible can be understood literally, some had no contradiction with mans explanation, and some biblical truths were open for various interpretations. In the years that passed, the Age of Reason turned into the Age of Revolution due to the battle of individual rights which reached the lower class particularly in France. This caused the French Revolution where division between the rich and poor grew wider. Most nobility at the time had despised the Church for its inability to understand freedom of self. Not only was society divided but even the clergies who were divided by social statuses. The French Revolution was the climatic end for the Enlightenment as the Freemasons stir the people into going against the Church. Despite good attempts to make the French Revolution a nonviolent event, it turned into war as the common people found it no good to simply consult the King, rather they took everything into a radical and omprehensive reform changing the traditional governance into a governance free of controls. By removing King Louis XVI as King, they could gain the freedom they sought, but with Louis decision to bring in mercenary troops, the subtle reform turns bloody. In the following events prior to the plans and orders of Louis, many bishops and priest against to the idea of making the church into a state-run church and that the positions of priest and bishops were to be elected by the people. The priest and bishops who were against such solutions were either exiled or killed. Thousands of onasteries were destroyed and in 1793, Louis XVI was beheaded. The French Revolution ended the reign of the Church in Europe. Leading the army, Napoleon Bonaparte restored the countrys order and conquered Western Europe and was threatening Russia. He invaded Italy when Pope Pius VI sided against the revolution, but Pius died not long after. To gain more support for his rule, he re-established the Catholic Church in France where several terms which the bishops and priests had declined before was made. The Pope agreed to the terms which granted the bishops and priests salary in return for agreeing to the terms. When Napoleon was to be crowned emperor, Pope Pius VII was asked to crown him only to find himself imprisoned and Napoleon crowning himself as a sign of insult to the pope. Pius VII excommunicated Napoleon, while Napoleon imprisoned Pius VII for 6 years. When Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, the Congress of Vienna returned the peace and order of France after 30 years. It went back to the monarchial way and Pius VII was returned to Rome. Despite returning to old ways, much of what happened in the French Revolution was visible that civil divorces, civil marriages, and reedom of religion were evident. A great secularization became the consequence of the French Revolution. After the end of Napoleons reign, the Catholic Church took for a better turn as it had a great revival both spiritually and intellectually through the effort of Pope Pius X. King Louis XVIIIs return to the throne brought relief to the Church as he returned the Papal State to Rome, religious order long restrained in France, and many more which made the Church flourish once again. The rule of Pius IX as pope was considered as the longest papacy in history. Concerned with many hings that had changed during the French Revolution and the Enlightenment period, he condemned modern errors and those associating liberalism, rationalism, and the likes. His power reached climax when he called bishops to Rome for Vatican Council I defining papacy primacy and papal infallibility. In the 19th century a new era called Industrialization was formed which made the Industrial Revolution possible where the improvement of technology changed the lives to people creating many divisions and insufficient wages. Pope Leo XIII issued the encyclical Rerum Novarum which ought for the dignity of workers, making him the first pope to concern with social problems. Industrial Revolution and Rationalism soon turned into Modernism trying to interpret Christianity in modern understanding. And as changes go on, many following popes came to defend and did not side with the modernism. John XXIII became the new pope and announced a meeting of an Ecumenical Council would meet. He saw that the Church could not adapt to the changes of the modern world He called forth the Curia for a preparatory work for the Second Vatican Council. The purpose was to promote unity and adaptation to the new world changing many hings in the way they perceived things. It also declared Religious Freedom where all may choose whichever they choose as religion no longer having Catholicism as mandated. After the death of John XXIII, many had mourned for his death as he became a legend in the eyes of men changing the way Catholic religion viewed the world. He was succeeded by the following afterwards: Cardinal Montini (Paul VI), John Paul l, John Paul II, and Cardinal Ratzinger (Pope Benedict WI). Making realized to one man the importance of knowing the Churchs rich and long yet fulfilling history.

The Crisis of Capitalistic Democracy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Crisis of Capitalistic Democracy - Essay Example The most evident and apparent thing about the book is Posner’s acceptance of the Keynesianism, where he expresses that although the Keynesian Economics is to be constructed upon the idea’s of Keynes, the practitioners in the field of economics has reshaped the ideas. It is also notable that the previous book he wrote is based on the failure of the capitalism, yet Posner staunchly believes in capitalistic approach and appears cautious of the free markets. Posner suggests reformation of the policies that seem rational and an interesting element. Thus, Posner concisely states in his book that the existence of market economies is the reason for the depression in the economy, therefore, the only solution to the current scenario is to let the government curb the depression with its sensible and well analyzed polices. What may be arguable here is that a person who staunchly believes in capitalism has suggested his own perspective of controlling an economy keeping in mind the b enefits that a capitalistic market offers. However, the benefits of market economy are largely ignored by Posner in the book (Ferguson, 2010). The condition unanimously requires to be dealt with, in order to curb the economic dip. But it must not be forgotten that throughout history the countries that were under the capitalistic economies switched to the Market economies; thus, it may be noted that the government has always taken advantage of the authority when given control of the economy as a whole. Therefore, I believe that the economies do not need a switch rather a change should be brought in the existent policies. In my perception, the capitalistic approach would hinder the competency levels in the market and, as a repercussion, the quality of the products and services will reduce. Therefore, if the economy is bad today it will be worse tomorrow (Ferguson, 2010). I believe that Judge Posner has tried to present a reform that is more demanding in its form and structure. He clar ifies in his book: â€Å"Campaign contributions – insulated in the name of the Constitution by a conservative Supreme Court from effective limitation – make the legislative system one of quasi-bribery. Modern communications technology and marketing techniques, along with the expense of modern elections, amplify the influence the interest groups, especially their influence in blocking change. The short electoral cycle (major federal elections every two years) truncates the government’s policy horizon† (p. 384). He apparently suggests here that our economy must re-establish Glass-Steagall in order to rebuild the financing regulatory agencies and to re-shape the Credit Rating Agencies. However, these policies are rigid in nature and are difficult to implement. Moreover, Posner has managed well to point out certain short-comings but in its wake has forgotten to realize that political norms are not stagnant and permanent. He ignores the other existent possibil ities of funding a campaign through public funds as an alternative to private funds. There are functional congressional bills that will aid in the provision of the alternative preferences such as Fair Elections Now Act (Ferguson, 2010). Nevertheless, Posner is correct in highlighting the mitigating factors that lead to the great depression. He mentions that crisis worsened after permitting Lehman Brothers to fail. This led to succeeding administrations response that

Managing Cultural Diversity - Cross Cultural Communication Research Paper

Managing Cultural Diversity - Cross Cultural Communication - Research Paper Example Management is about setting goals and achieving them in the decided time. However, different cultures have different approach towards goal setting and setting deadline, depending on their beliefs of free will or ‘will of God’ (Munter, 1993, para 6). These important aspects are covered in the article in detail. So the article not only looks at the word patterns, body language and behavior pattern of people that are shaped by cultural influences, but also dives deep into the roots of the behavior and reveals that actually, the behavior pattern and psychology stem from the religious and spiritual beliefs of people coming from different cultures. Another important aspect discussed in the article is the definition of self in different countries, i.e., if people see themselves as individuals or groups. This is extremely important in communication style as it talks about the comfort level a person from individualistic approach might feel while communicating with person having group approach (Munter, 1993, para 17). Also, the article has described how communication does not mean only the verbal or non-verbal communication that takes place between people, but also means understanding the habits of people in their mundane life. Hence, the author has also discussed the importance of understanding and following the eating habits, as according to the author, food is the major aspect of lifestyle and culture. So food etiquettes also play an important role in communication pattern (Munter, 1993, para 24). Apart from discussing the cross-culture aspects like value, image, credibility psychology and understanding the audience, the author has discussed aspects like

Compensation Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Compensation - Case Study Example Majority of accountants are bachelor’s degree holders while product managers are masters graduates. Moreover, most managers have a higher experience of between 10-15 years while accountants have only an average experience of 2-5 and 5-10 years. Stock options are offered by firms as means of compensation for lower salaries. Given the above mentioned jobs, companies do not include stock options as benefits on top of the salaries offered. This is because the salaries offered by the organizations are high enough for the professions. The job descriptions vary for the different professions. Accountant III is responsible for preparation of balance sheets, profit and loss accounts and preparation of other financial reports in the organization. Other tasks include analysis of business trends for costs, revenues, obligations and commitments. The financial analyst is responsible for compiling necessary financial information for an organization. Some of the important information includes preparation of analyses of revenues and expenses projections, reports and presentations to the firm. He/she is also required to prepare financial reports of organizations including forecasting and reconciliation of internal accounts. Product manager in a bank is on the contrary responsible for marketing products of the bank and ensuring that the bank makes profits. These job descriptions are what I expected and once I attain the required credentials, I would apply for the job (Dundon & Rollinson, 2007). The comparison of the compensation at salary.com for the professions with local/regional compensation reveals that the compensation offered by the local career office are lower than the compensation offered by salary.com. The reason for this could be due to lower responsibilities for jobs at the regional level, demotions, working in small companies compared to large multinationals and jobs being offered at the

Culture And International Marketing Management Marketing Essay

Culture And International Marketing Management Marketing Essay Barter (2008:37) in his paper says that the management of activities over international boundaries is of particular complexity and is an overwhelming task. In expanding business operations to international countries poses numerous challenges and problems never faced or seen in domestic markets. This complexity enables international organizations with knowledge and expertise to exploit the numerous opportunities provided by such markets. The general understanding of international marketing is an organization operating in more than one country, whose marketing strategy usually formulated on the countries differences. A different perspective of the same would be a specific activity to plan, price, promote and direct the flow of ones goods and services to various locations for a profit. Global marketing is very much different from international marketing in the fact being they perceive the world markets as a single entity and their marketing strategy is stagnated with the adoption of their standardized approach in selling their products in the same way but in a different local. The international marketing environment (Cateora Graham, 2007) is a mixture of controllable and uncontrollable factors. The uniqueness of this combination dwells over the unfamiliar circumstances posed by foreign markets. Success achieved by an organization in these environments would require a variety of strategies that would enable them to understand and cope with the fluctuating levels of uncertainty in a foreign market in order to influence their outcome to a positive one. The controllable and uncontrollable factors can be defined by into key elements by understanding the functioning of an organization in a foreign market. The controllable factors that an organization has direct control over and can be easily manipulated are elements such as price, product, marketing communication and distribution. On of the major uncontrollable factors for an organization in a foreign environment is cultural forces. When organization intends to trade in a foreign market they need to explore the countries underlying culture. Culture is the core element in the study of international marketing across diverse populations. A countries culture may embody a set of values and norms (building blocks) that are put into place for the mutual understanding of a common cause, designed for their living. A stereotypical description of a countries culture would be a collective programming of the mind that separates various human groups from each other. Each culture as we see have different boundaries which serve as a control mechanism, what may be acceptable in one country may be denounced in the other. Thus in order to achieve success in an international marketing venture an organization has to first understand a countries cultural boundaries. Even though different researchers have contributed theories and developed models with Ries and Trouts definition as a base, those existing models and theories do not include the way a company should consider cultural differences when positioning itself in different international markets. Considering the fact that most researchers define positioning as something relative to the competitors position, entering a new market should involve changes in the positioning strategy as well. Overall, little study has been made regarding the way a positioning strategy changes depending on which country the company is about to enter. International marketing literature (e.g. Kotler, 2002; Doole Lowe, 2004; Griffin, 1994), however, emphasize on the cultural differences in different nations and how these differences in culture affect the way a company should enter the new market. These cultural differences are especially important in consumer markets, due to the great impact culture has on the buying behavior for the single individual (Usunier, 2000). One way for a company to gain market shares in different markets, could be to find different advantages with the same product based on the different culture in the actual market. This could hypothetically mean that a company uses a different position with a different strategy in the new market, even though the exact same product is offered and the competitors are the same. The Economic Environment The economic environment is explained by Gilligan (1986:35) he says that the economic environment influences demand in a number of ways and its potential effect upon an international marketing program needs to be examined from two separate but interrelated viewpoints .at the macro level the marketers needs to consider people want and needs the country economic policy its state of development and the economic outlook. At the micro level he needs to focus upon the firms ability to satisfy. The economic environment that to large extent defines the marketing opportunity for international operation and it is only means of a detailed analysis of this aspect of the aspect of the environment that the marketer is able to answer two fundamental questions firstly how big is the market is able the market and secondly what is the market like it is the answer to these questions which then help to determine the firms market potential and priorities and subsequently the nature of marketing task that is to be performed by we therefore by considering a number of the elements and that make up the macro and micro economic environment and then move on to discuss how they influence marketing strategy. There are a number of steps that need to be taken before you decide to enter international markets. Analyze the international marketing environment. A PEST/STEP analysis needs to be conducted on the market you enter, to assess whether it is worthwhile or not. Lets briefly look at some factors that may influence an international decision. Political factors The political stability of the nation. Is it a democracy, communist, or dictatorial regime Economical Factors Consumer wealth and expenditure within the country. National interests and inflation rate. Are quotas imposed on your product. Are there import tariffs imposed. Social Factors Language. Will language be a barrier to communication for you? Does your host nation speak your national language? What is the meaning of your brand name in your host countrys language? Customs: what customs do you have to be aware of within the country? This is important. You need to make sure you do not offend while communicating your message. Technological The technological infrastructure of the market. Do all homes have access to energy (electricity) Standardization versus cultural adaptation Heerden and Barter state that the debate around whether marketing efforts should be standardized or adapted to country specifics has not been totally resolved. Advocates of standardization claim that global market segments are emerging and that marketing efforts not only can, but also should be standardized across markets (Melewar Vemmervik, 2004: 863). They believe that the differences across markets and cultures appear to be lessening, and this is reiterated by Herbig (1998:31) who states that there is a converging of all cultures towards one common global culture, and that marketers should endeavor to address global (international) needs, finding areas of commonality and agreement rather than focusing on trivial differences between cultures. They advocate that organizations must learn to operate as if the world was one large market ignoring superficial country differences (Toyne Walters, 1993:422). Their pursuit is also encouraged by the major benefits or advantages from standa rdization. Although product standardization is generally increasing, there are still substantial differences in company practices depending on the products marketed and where they are marketed (Czinkota Ronkainen, 2007:328). They further add, The argument that the world is becoming homogenized may actually be true only for a limited number of products that have universal brand recognition and minimal product knowledge requirements for use. By using the same marketing strategy the world over, different markets will develop a consistent image of a particular product or brand. A global brand image will avoid the confusion that customers may otherwise face when travelling to different countries and seeing foreign media, if an organization has local campaigns in each country. Standardization will result in advantages such as the creation of synergies across markets (Melewar Vemmervik, 2004: 863) as well as economies of scale, economies of scope and creation of a global brand image (Hill, 2001:544). . Advocates of adaptation, on the other hand, claim that the differences between cultures are so vast that standardization is not possible and that standardization results in lost competitive advantage and lower sales (Melewar Vemmervik, 2004: 863). This strategy entails that organizations introduce a unique product in each country, with the belief that tastes differ so much between countries that it is necessary to start anew in creating a marketing strategy for each market. Each country should be approached separately as a different market and the S.Afr.J.Bus.Manage.2008,39(2) 39 marketing strategy customized for that particular market (Herbig, 1998:34). Organizations have the ability to tailor the marketing strategy to suit local markets: and proponents of this philosophy are determined that cultural differences between nations are such that a strategy that works in one nation can fail miserably in another. They believe it is exceptionally difficult to develop a single marketing strategy that would have the desired affects worldwide. Thus, adaptation allows a marketer to take such differences into account and provides the local market with a marketing strategy that appeals to them and will be effective in its function, so creating greater sales and enhancing profits. By providing a particular international market, such as India, with what they want (e.g. a non-alcoholic beverage), an organization (such as SA Breweries) can create a distinct competitive advantage for itself because it is receptive to the needs and wants of that market. The absence of the advantages that emerge from standardization is in essence the disadvantages of a daptation, and visa versa where the absence of the advantages of adaptation constitutes the very disadvantages of standardization. Given the reality of significant cultural differences between customer needs and market conditions in international markets and, at the same time, the advantages of more uniform marketing strategies, a debate that focuses on polar extremes does not contribute to a solution (Toyne Walters, 1993:423). Viewing the standardization versus adaptation debate as a black and white issue is not necessarily correct, as there is an important middle ground (Diamantopoulos et al, 1995:38). A grey area exists between the two extremes and it is called Glocalisation. This follows a philosophy of think global, act local (Herbig, 1998:43). It can be generalized and argued that absolute standardization is rendered unfeasible as an international marketing strategy and its product -, promotion-, price-, and distribution-related decisions (Baalbaki Malhotra, 1993:20) cannot and should not ignore the influence of culture. Cross Cultural Analysis One of the most common used cross-culture theories is Geert Hofstedes culture dimensions. It consists or rather identifies five different dimensions of culture; individualism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, and Confucian dynamism. These dimensions are helpful in identifying and explaining cross-cultural differences in consumer behavior. It takes into consideration the differences peoples belief system and behavior in various nations and cultures. Hostedes model is measured against a range from 0 to 100 and is found to be based on quantitative research of different dimensions of 75 of the worlds countries and regions. Other models include cultural variables such as need for achievement and industriousness. Kruger and Nandan state that the cultural classifications begin with individualism versus collectivism. Individualistic cultures focus on self and the immediate family. The collectivist cultures include a social framework that includes the extended family, groups, and the organization where the members of a collectivist culture look after each other. For example, China and India have a strong collectivist culture with tremendous respect for customs, traditions, rules and regulations that developed over centuries (Melewar, Meadows, Zheng and Rickards 2004). For the Chinese and Indian cultures, group membership revolves around the extended family that includes grand parents, aunts, uncles, and cousins as well as informal friendship groups and formal organizational groupings. Both cultures take pride in belonging to this in-group collectivism, which emphasizes the feminine aspect of the culture that is concerned with others and focuses on relationships rather than assertive, direct and competitive behavior. Over the centuries this in-group collectivism developed strong customs, traditions, informal rules and procedures to avoid risk or behavioral embarrassment. These customs and traditions explain Hofstedes concept of uncertainty avoidance. According to Hofstede uncertainty avoidance advocates predictable structured situations versus unstructured unpredictable situations. For example, Indian and Chinese families traditionally arranged marriages between families. These structured situations spill over into each countrys respect for authority, titles and status. This respect is consistent with the concept of Hofstedes Power Distance, which is exemplified by the Indian and Chinese respect toward the elderly members of their society. Despite the respect for the elders in both countries, neither culture embraces the gender differentiation dimension (Javidan and House 2001). This dimension measures the status and decision making responsibilities that women have within each culture. In the Ind ian and Chinese cultures the status of women and their decision-making responsibilities are historically limited. Although the Chinese equalitarian ideology focuses on society equality and individual and group relationships in China, gender status provides little decision-making autonomy for Chinese and Indian women compared to women in the United States. The human orientation dimension by Javidan and House encourages fairness and kindness, but is difficult to evaluate. The historic Chinese ideology promotes a caring and generous approach toward society as a whole, but this socialistic ideology focuses on society equality to promote fairness and generosity. Within the Chinese and Indian cultural systems specific individual or specific group rewards are not well developed or prevalent (Dessler 2007). Since China and India appear to be rapidly moving toward a semi-capitalistic approach to their economies, a more humanistic orientation might be developing within each country that is more in line with the more individualistic human resource approach present in western countries. Similar to the human orientation dimension the performance-oriented dimension in China and India, where a society rewards individuals and group members for improvement, remains questionable. However, Hong Kong ranks high on the performance-orientation dimension, a ccording to Javidan and House, because of the western influence from British rule. To enable the Indian and the Mainland Chinese to develop a more complete performance oriented system requires each country to move toward a free market economy. Since the Indian Government and the Chinese Government encourage their companies to compete on the world market, a more performance-oriented culture should develop and adapt to the international globalization trends in both countries. But the weak performance orientation present within China and India cultures has not permitted businesses within each country to more fully develop their human resource functions and marketing strategies (Dessler 2007). This lack of cultural assertiveness hinders Indian and Chinese companies, and their ability to develop a global aggressiveness strategy particularly in the marketing area, where building brand identification and image linkage can determine the success or failure of a product or service. Individualism Individualism is described as the relationship between an individual and his community in the society. When there is a high degree of individualism and self-interests in a society, an individual is expect to look after himself and his immediate family, becoming independent from different groups and organizations. In some societies where people from an early age are classified into groups and these groups are their major source of their identity, we see a low degree of individualism and are referred to as collectivism. Power distance People has unequal physical and intellectual capacities which some societies allows to inequality in power and wealth . All the societies of the world has such inequalities but some are more than the other Power distance occurs when resources of the society is not distributed equally. It reflects human inequality. A high power distance is an indicator that people believe that everyone has their rightful place and they understand that not everyone is treated equally. Usually income is a relatively big factor in these societies which cause these demarcations. In Philippines , India, France score high in power distance on the other hand countries such as Austria ,Denmark and Sweden slightly low in power distance while the United States lies below the mid-point A low power distance occurs in societies that believe that everyone has equal rights and also equal opportunity to change their social status. Uncertain avoidance Debate: Marketing of new products takeoff faster in countries that are low in uncertainty avoidance as compared to those countries high in uncertainty avoidance. Uncertain avoidance refers to the level of anxiety about the future. Societies which display a high in uncertainty avoidance try to beat any change in future prospect hence the creation of rules and regulations. Whereas societies where in there is a low uncertainty avoidance consist of people open to risk, as they accept and handle each day as it comes. Countries that are high in uncertainty avoidance show a lag in takeoff as compared to those that are low in uncertainty avoidance mainly for two reasons. Firstly, societies that are low in uncertainty avoidance are more open and willing to take greater risks, hence, they will more readily accept new products introduced to them on the market. Secondly, societies high in uncertainty avoidance consider change as dangerous and are more intolerant towards accepting change than societies in low uncertainty avoidance. Thus, we see that countries low in uncertainty avoidance will embrace a new product more easily than countries that are higher in uncertainty avoidance. Masculinity Debate: Products new to the market takeoff faster in countries having higher masculinity than those countries have a lower masculine society. Men, in most cultures tend to be more assertive as compare to the women who are more nurturing. The male behavior is associated with autonomy, aggression, exhibition, and dominance, while female behavior is associated with nurturance, affiliation, and humility. Masculinity and feminity refer to the sex role patter in society at large, to the extent it is characterized by male or female characteristics. Masculinity is usually expected to take of mainly for two reasons according to Hofstede, firstly, masculine societies attach more value to recognition and wealth, while feminine societies attach more value to human contact and living environment. The adoption of new products allows consumer to exhibit their wealth and success, which may more compatible with masculine societies. Consumer in a masculine society may show higher innovativeness, as compared to consumers in more feminine societies. Secondly, in a masculine society people tend to make decisions independently and admire the strong and the independent. When a new product first emerges, adoptions are few and require independent decisions by innovators. When we observe both societies we see that the masculine society is more accepting to a new product as their decisions are independent whereas in the feminine society the decision on a new product is made in a group decision, which may cause a low acceptance level of the new pro duct. Hence masculine countries show a faster takeoff than feminine countries. Confucian dynamism Confucian dynamism reflects culture to the degree they are universalistic and particularistic. Universalistic means that what is true can be applied everywhere and particularistic means that unique relationships and circumstances are more important considering in determining what is right and good rather than abstract rules. Religion The nature and complexity of the different religions an international marketer could encounter is pretty diverse. The organization needs to make sure that their products and services are not offensive, unlawful or distasteful to the local nation. This includes marketing promotion and branding. There was a controversy in China in 2007 (which was the year of the pig) all advertising which included pictures of pigs was banned. This was to maintain harmony with the countrys Muslim population of around 2%. The ban included pictures of sausages that contained pork, and even advertising that included an animated (cartoon) pig. In the year 2005 Frances Catholic Church won a court injunction to ban a clothing advertisement (by clothing designers Marithe and Francois Girbaud) based upon Leonardo da Vincis Christs Last Supper. Need for Achievement Debate: Countries which have a high need for achievement display a faster takeoff than countries low in the need for achievement. The need for achievement, Murray (1938) describes the tendency or desire to do things as rapidly and/or as well as possible. Need for achievement includes successfully and independently overcoming obstacles, competing with and surpassing others, and high self-regard. Veroff et al. (1962) associate a high need for achievement particularly with working harder, being less satisfied with current success, and being more oriented to the future fruits of work. All these traits may lend themselves to greater eagerness for adopting new products and greater willingness to experiment with new products as soon as they are available. Industriousness Debate: New products take off faster in countries with high industriousness than those with low industriousness. Industrious people are inclined to work and tend to value the fruits of work more than less industrious people. The industriousness of a population can affect the speed of takeoff for supply and demand reasons. Such people realize that innovations can make work more productive as well as make their rest from work more productive, so industrious people tend to be more receptive to innovations as well as to work harder to develop innovations. Thus, when a new product is available, industrious entrepreneurs, retailers, and distributors are likely to work harder to make this product available to the general population. At the same time, the people themselves are more likely to search for, try out, and adopt the new product. Thus, the new product is likely to take off faster in an industrious culture than in one that is not industrious. These different dimensions are useful for companies, who are in the process of expanding and developing its business, as they give an insight about how to act in foreign cultures. All the dimensions can be helpful in winning potential customers by adapting the marketing activities to the specific culture. Especially, the masculinity dimension is an important dimension for companies to consider when it comes to marketing in different cultures and entering new markets. Information Access Prior research suggests that peoples access to information strongly affects the speed at which they adopt a new product (Rogers 1995). Therefore, we may expect that a new product takes off faster in countries in which inhabitants have easy access to information than in other countries. We identify three factors that capture different dimensions of information access: media intensity, mobility, and education. Values and Attitudes The importance of values and attitudes vary between nations, and even vary within nations. So if you are planning to take a product or service overseas make sure that you have a good grasp the locality before you enter the market. This could mean altering promotional material or subtle branding messages. There may also be an issue when managing local employees. For example, in France workers tend to take vacations for the whole of August, whilst in the United States employees may only take a couple of weeks vacation in an entire year. The Chinese government banned China banned a Nike television commercial showing U.S. basketball star LeBron James in a battle with animated cartoon kung fu masters and two dragons, because it was argued that the ad insults Chinese national dignity in the year 2004. Technology and Material Culture Debate: The sale of new product depends on the level of technology and material culture Technology includes facilities such as there energy to power the products . Transport infrastructure to distribute our goods to consumers . The local port have large enough cranes to offload containers from ships How quickly does innovation diffuse is also of key importance, do consumers actually buy material goods i.e. are they materialistic. A clockwork radio was launched byTrevor Baylis in the African market. Since batteries were expensive in Africa and power supplies in rural areas are non-existent. The clockwork radio innovation was a huge success that was due to introduction of new technology. The car market grew 25% in 2006in China and it has overtaken Japan to be the second-largest car market in the world with sales of 8 million vehicles. With just six car owners per 100 people (6%), compared with 90% car ownership in the US and 80% in the UK, the potential for growth in the Chinese market is immense. Media Intensity Debate: Countries high in media intensity display a faster takeoff than those with low media intensity coverage. Mass media such as newspapers, radio, and television play an important role in creating awareness of a new product among potential adopters (Beal and Rogers 1960) and influencing acceptance of a new product (Katz and Lazarsfeld 1955). Mass media may also lead to greater ability of consumers to detect superior new products, and thus increase the rate at which, and the likelihood that, consumers will adopt them. Mass media also contribute to the cosmopolitanism of consumers of a country, especially if it concerns cosmopolite channels (Rogers 1995). Through cosmopolite channels, consumers in a target country can access information about innovations that have been introduced in other countries, even before the innovation is introduced in the target country (Gatignon et al. 1989). Such information can hasten the takeoff of the innovation in the target country. Mobility Debate: New products take off faster in countries high in mobility Various studies indicate that the higher the mobility of a countrys citizens, the more rapidly new products penetrates the social system. Interpersonal interaction affects the way and the rate consumers learn about various new products. Education Debate: Products takeoff faster in countries with citizen who have enjoyed higher education than those who havent had any. Education as we know it exposes people to a constant and steady stream of embracing new ideas. Introduction of technology in education also sensitizes the importance of human progress; this in turn makes them more receptive to innovations. It is a well known fact from research today that educated people are more responsive and quicker to adapt and accept a new product as compared to non-educated people. Finland follows old German model of education the education after primary school is divided to the vocational and academic systems. School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16, the first nine years of education (primary and secondary school) are compulsory, and the pupils go to their local school. In Uganda schooling includes 7 years of primary education, 6 years of secondary education (divided into 4 years of lower secondary and 2 years of upper secondary school), and 3 to 5 years of post-secondary education. Nine years of education is compulsory for all Chinese students. case of the Peoples Republic of China a nationwide system of public education is in place, which includes primary schools, middle schools (lower and upper), and universities. Conclusion Exploring the world international markets in a way in which culture and marketing affects and are affected by ones other culture is an eye opener to any organization contemplating to venture forth into international markets. The finding indicates that culture plays a very important role in the formulation of an international marketing strategy. Marketers cannot assume homogeneity of cultures across the globe and it is surmised that there are not similarities and congruencies among the cultures within and between countries. Heerden and Barter state that the international marketer needs to study the target market to learn what elements of the strategy might be standardized to allow for economies of scale to be achieved, but at the same time, know which elements to customize so as not to render the entire strategy unsuccessful. It is to be noted that the marketer needs to account for local culture by building it into the marketing strategy, and not expect that the culture will adapt and accept the strategy provided. Generally, the responses suggest that a marketers strategy should suit the local culture in order to reach them and have the desired effect on the target market, and not the other way around because such evolutions could take an extensive amount of time in order to achieve marketing goals. If a marketer can create a relatively standardized and cross-cultural strategy that translates across most cultures, then the goals of marketing across countries would be achieved at a minimal spend. Krueger and Nandan state that As economic and political integration transpires through globalization, local and national customs, traditions, standards, and boundaries begin to dissolve, which leads to an extremely complex diverse global environment, and provides businesses with the need and the opportunity to read, identify, and develop new cultural competence. To exemplify the risk and dilemmas associated with different cultural implications. For example, different cultures develop less visible formal and informal rituals. In Japan formal gift giving is a widely accepted ritualistic standard of courtesy. In the United States gift giving is perceived as a bribe in business. The Japanese have a low tolerance for ambiguity and are very formal, indirect and patient in their business dealings. In contrast, the United States culture has a high tolerance for ambiguity and is informal, direct, punctual, and time oriented. These cultural

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Essay -- essays research papers

Throughout history, man has been fascinated by the thought of flying among the clouds. But recently it seems that man is slowly starting to come back down to earth and complete aviation-required tasks with two feet firmly on the ground. As impossible as it may seem, aeronautics and aviation are doing something almost unfathomable: letting airplanes fly without a pilot. This amazing feat is being done through the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). These spectacular aircrafts are revolutionizing the aviation industry by using incredible technology and the brightest minds from all around the globe. Many prestigious aviation companies such as Boeing, Northrop Grumman, and Lockheed Martin, (to name a few) have led the way in the design and development of UAVs. Even though UAVs are seen as very modern and futuristic, the concept of flying without a pilot has been thought of for long time. (â€Å"Brief† 1) The idea was first tested during the United States Civil War, when both the North and South attempted to put explosives in a hot air balloon, and make them drop on the other side’s camp. The idea of using hot air balloons was used again in World War II by the Japanese, who attempted to bomb the United States by using wind to guide the balloons. During WWII, the U.S. had a more successful attempt at producing a UAV, a prototype called, â€Å"Operation Aphrodite.† (â€Å"Brief† 1) But it was the development of cruise missiles that paved the way for UAVs. The aeronautics company, Chance Vought Aircraft, is the company that took the first step in p roducing UAVs by proposing the idea of putting landing gear onto missiles. One of the first, full-functioning UAVs is the Firebee. The Firebee was designed by Ryan Aeronautical Company and u... ...form surveillance as well as artillery missions (â€Å"Production† 1). Other countries with UAV programs include North Korea, South Korea, India, Pakistan, Japan and Australia, to name a few (Wilson J.R). UAV technology is available to not only industrial superpowers, but also to smaller countries. Unmanned Aircraft are the future of aviation. When people think that the most advanced and best models cannot be topped, they are surprised to find that what they thought was the best, is merely a stepping stone of a field with tons of potential. UAVs are keeping humans safer but are also doing jobs that, without them, would be hard for humans to do. UAVs are the result of the most advanced technology known to mankind being put into an aircraft. With so many advanced models of UAVs already, it is amazing to ponder about what the future of UAVs will hold.

Computer Games Advantages and Disavantages

In today’s modern world, computers are very essential part of everyday life. Children often use computer from very young age for computer games and internet. Computers are developing their computer skills. Although, this can also be seen that children are too much dependent on computer games. It has got both pros and cons which will be discussed in the following paragraphs. On the one hand, some types of games can be very intelligent and may contain huge educational potential which can encourage their skill, concentration and inspire them to learn new things.If children use computer game from their childhood age, they are familiar with most of the function of computer; this will be very helpful for their future career. Another advantage is that there are lots of interesting features in computer, no child feel bore and alone using computer. On the other hand because of interesting features and different types of games in computer, firstly children become too much dependent on i t. They spend their most of the time using computer games as a result they lose their interest on daily activities like their school homework and also forget to meet with their friend and colleagues.Secondly, some video games can be very aggressive in nature so these video games are usually highly addictive and easily available on internet. Moreover continuous use of computer game can be damaged both eyes and physical posture of the children. To sum up, there are lots of merits of using computer game however in my opinion; children don’t spend their whole time on computer. Parents should also care about their schedule for computer game. Computer games are indisputably popular among teenagers. Because of their widespread use, many studies provide data on the short- and long-term effects of regularly playing computer games.Some studies conclude there is a link between playing violent video games and tendencies towards violent behavior. Increasingly, the social element to playin g computer games affects how teenagers interact with peers. Playing computer games has also been shown to improve problem-solving skills and increase adeptness at using technology overall. But an addictive aspect to many games suggests that playing in moderation is critical. Related Studies An online game is a game played over some form of computer network.This almost always means the Internet or equivalent technology, but games have always used whatever technology was current: modems before the Internet, and hard wired terminals before modems. The expansion of online gaming has reflected the overall expansion of computer networks from small local networks to the Internet and the growth of Internet access itself. Online games can range from simple text based games to games incorporating complex graphics and virtual worlds populated by many players simultaneously. Many online games have associated online communities, making online games a form of social activity beyond single player games.The rising popularity of Flash and Java led to an Internet revolution where websites could utilize streaming video, audio, and a whole new set of user interactivity. When Microsoft began packaging Flash as a pre-installed component of IE, the Internet began to shift from a data/information spectrum to also offer on-demand entertainment. This revolution paved the way for sites to offer games to web surfers. Some online multiplayer games like World of Warcraft, Final Fantasy XI and Lineage II charge a monthly fee to subscribe to their services, while games such as Guild Wars offer an alternative no monthly fee scheme.

Why You Should Use Reusable Shopping Bags

Why You Should Use Reusable Shopping Bags The next time the clerk at your favorite grocery store asks whether you prefer â€Å"paper or plastic† for your purchases, consider giving the truly eco-friendly response and saying, â€Å"neither.† Plastic bags end up as litter that fouls the landscape and kill thousands of marine animals every year that mistake the floating bags for food. Plastic bags that get buried in landfills may take up to 1,000 years to break down, and in the process, they separate into smaller and smaller toxic particles that contaminate soil and water. Furthermore, the production of plastic bags consume millions of gallons of oil that could be used for fuel and heating. Is Paper Better Than Plastic? Paper bags, which many people consider a better alternative to plastic bags, carry their own set of environmental problems. For example, according to the American Forest and Paper Association, in 1999 the U.S. alone used 10 billion paper grocery bags, which adds up to a lot of trees, plus a lot of water and chemicals to process the paper. Reusable Bags Are a Better Option But if you decline both paper and plastic bags, then how do you get your groceries home? The answer, according to many environmentalists, is high-quality reusable shopping bags made of materials that don’t harm the environment during production and don’t need to be discarded after each use. You can find a good selection of high-quality reusable bags online, or at most grocery stores, department stores, and food co-operatives. Experts estimate that 500 billion to 1 trillion plastic bags are consumed and discarded annually worldwide- more than a million per minute. Here are a few facts about plastic bags to help demonstrate the value of reusable bags to consumers and the environment: Plastic bags are not biodegradable. They actually go through a process called photodegradation- breaking down into smaller and smaller toxic particles that contaminate both soil and water, and end up entering the food chain when animals accidentally ingest them.According to the Environmental Protection Agency, more than 380 billion plastic bags are used in the United States every year. Of those, approximately 100 billion are plastic shopping bags, which cost retailers about $4 billion annually.According to various estimates, Taiwan consumes 20 billion plastic bags annually (900 per person), Japan consumes 300 billion bags each year (300 per person), and Australia consumes 6.9 billion plastic bags annually (326 per person).Hundreds of thousands of whales, dolphins, sea turtles, and other marine mammals die every year after eating discarded plastic bags they mistake for food.Discarded plastic bags have become so common in Africa they have spawned a cottage industry. People there collec t the bags and use them to weave hats, bags, and other goods. According to the BBC, one such group routinely collects 30,000 bags every month. Plastic bags as litter have even become commonplace in Antarctica and other remote areas. According to David Barnes, a marine scientist with the British Antarctic Survey, plastic bags have gone from being rare in the late 1980s and early 1990s to being almost everywhere in Antarctica. Some governments have recognized the severity of the problem and are taking action to help combat it. Strategic Taxes Can Cut Plastic Bag Use In 2001, for example, Ireland was using 1.2 billion plastic bags annually, about 316 per person. In 2002, the Irish government imposed a plastic bag consumption tax (called a PlasTax), which has reduced consumption by 90 percent. The tax of $.15 per bag is paid by consumers when they check out at the store. Besides cutting back on litter, Ireland’s tax has saved approximately 18 million liters of oil. Several other governments around the world are now considering a similar tax on plastic bags. Governments Use the Law to Limit Plastic Bags More recently, Japan passed a law that empowers the government to issue warnings to merchants that overuse plastic bags and don’t do enough to â€Å"reduce, reuse, or recycle.† In Japanese culture, it is common for stores to wrap each item in its own bag, which the Japanese consider a matter of both good hygiene and respect or politeness. Companies Making Tough Choices Meanwhile, some eco-friendly companies- such as Toronto’s Mountain Equipment Co-op- are voluntarily exploring ethical alternatives to plastic bags, turning to biodegradable bags made from corn. The corn-based bags cost several times more than plastic bags, but are produced using much less energy and will break down in landfills or composters in four to 12 weeks. Edited by Frederic Beaudry

Learn How to Pronounce the Letter S in French

Learn How to Pronounce the Letter S in French Just as in English, the letter S is used often in French. While it typically sounds exactly as youd expect, there is a second pronunciation youll need to know. This lesson will guide you through the sounds and even give you a few words to practice with. How to Pronounce the Letter S in French The letter S  can be pronounced two different ways in French: Its usually pronounced like the English S. This happens when it appears:At the beginning of a wordAt the end of a word or syllableAs a double SFollowed by a C (see below)In front of a consonantThe rest of the time, it is pronounced like a Z. Use this pronunciation when it is found:Between two vowelsIn a liaison such as les amis  [lay za mee] and  ils  ont. Pronouncing the Combination of SC As mentioned, when the letter S is combined with a C the pronunciation changes a bit.   When SC is used in front  of soft vowel, it sounds like an S.  For example, as in the word  sciences  (science).  If the SC appears in front of a hard vowel or  consonant,  the S  and  C are pronounced separately  and according to their respective rules. Youre probably familiar with the word  escargots  (snails), which follows this rule. Practice Your Pronunciation of S Since you understand the pronunciation rules for the letter S, its time to put it into practice. Using the rules above, see if you can figure out the correct pronunciation of each of these words. When you think you have it, click on the word to hear how its supposed to sound. Sucre  (sugar)Fils  (son)Poisson  (fish)Scruter  (to scan)Visage  (face)Ils ont  (they have)

LATIN AMERICAN JEWISH LITERATURE AND CINEMA Research Paper

LATIN AMERICAN JEWISH LITERATURE AND CINEMA - Research Paper Example The fathers played an important role in making their sons’ Jewish education and traditions. Gerchunoff (1998) says â€Å"Most of the Jewish men if not all were urban dwellers whose knowledge of gaucho was confined to the sporadic stays on the pampa.They glorified the gaucho as quintessential national idol, a courageous peasant always carrying his guitar, his poncho and his vengeful spirit which stands in contrast. His gauchos’ judios are not loners but family oriented bread winners. They are neither malicious nor rancorous but loyal to their biblical code of ethics† (p.5) The life of a Jewish boy involves some important life cycle events which include, birth, circumcision, Pidyod ha-Ben, bar mitzah and marriage. Birth According to Jewish law human life begins at birth and a child is born sinless. When a woman gives birth to a boy, she is sexually separated from the husband for seven days as the woman is considered impure for a period of 33 days and the father is given an honor of reading the Torah in the synagogue. The naming of a boy occurs during brit milah (the ritual of circumcision Circumcision From the Jewish point of view circumcision is a command from God. A boy child is circumcised on the eighth day after his birth. The eight day is counted from the day the child is born, for example, if a child is born on Tuesday he will be circumcised the following week on Tuesday. It involves surgical removal of the foreskin and is performed a Jewish elder known as a mohel, who is educated in Jewish law and circumcision. After the boy is circumcised he is held by a Sandek (godfather), who is normally the family rabbi or the boys grandparent .Here they recite various blessings and then the boy is given an official Jewish name. In Jewish laws brit milah - the ritual of circumcision is universally observed. Circumcision is perceived to be an outward sign of the inner agreement between the Jewish people and God. It is binding upon the father, and hi s son and the father is obligated to have his son circumcised. If the father does not take him to be circumcised, the boy must have himself circumcised when he grows up. A Person, who is not circumcised, has no value in the society and will suffer a penalty of Kareit meaning spiritual excision. After the circumcision ritual, a feast of meals and refreshments follows. Redemption of the Firstborn son: Pidyod ha-Ben A Jewish firstborn belongs to God. Originally, first born sons would serve as priests or other Temple functions in Israel. A first born son is redeemed at the age of 31 days. The ritual of Pidyod ha-Ben is done on the 31st day but if it falls on the Shabbat it will be done the following day as it involves an exchange of money. During this ritual a small amount of money, five silver shekels equal to five silver dollars is paid to a kohein (a Jewish elder who performs the ritual). Bar Mitzah Bar mitzah means son of the commandment. Boys are recognized as full members of the c ommunity at 13 when they celebrate bar mitzvah. At this age, a boy is obligated to observe the commandments. Bar mitzah ceremony is held and the boy assumes the right to take part in religious services. He is considered a man and must meet the requirements of ritual and civil law. During a normal Sabbath service, the boy child is called upon to read from the Torah for the first time. In modern day society,

To what extent do rational perspectives on management continue to Essay - 1

To what extent do rational perspectives on management continue to dominate and are they still relevant to contemporary managers - Essay Example It aims in creating mutual dependency and trust among the management and the employees such that they operate in a combined fashion to help in meeting the organisational objectives. Development of such a harmonic atmosphere in the organisation is observed to be conducive and beneficial for both the managers and the employees. The third principle as outlined by Taylor relates to the development of cooperation between the managers and the employees in the meeting of end objectives. Operating in a cooperative fashion contributes in the setting and development of standards in the workplace for conducting of tasks. This strategy thus would help in the resolution of conflicts between the managers and the employees (Taylor 2012). The last principle outlined by Taylor relates to the generation of equal opportunity for the development and growth of people pertaining to different levels in the organisation. It helps in promotion of people to shoulder newer and higher responsibilities by dearth of efficiency, skills, expertise and experience gained. This principle also calls for the development of training and development activities by the human resource managers in the organisation for the enhancement of existing ability and knowledge of the people. The above strategy is taken to enhance the sense of loyalty and belongingness in the minds of the employees for the organisation and thereby it helps in reducing the attrition levels (Murugan 2007). The first principle relates to the division or the unitisation of the total work or task generated by an organisation among a group of people. The essence of dividing the total work in basic units contributes in encouraging the different individuals to lay focus and attention on meeting of specific details related to the allocated task. Division of task based on specialisation of the employees also contributes in rightly allocating and using the organisational